# sgmortonhistory.com


## Posts

- [A History of Craniology in Race Science and Physical Anthropology](https://sgmortonhistory.com/a-history-of-craniology-in-race-science-and-physical-anthropology/): © Paul Wolff Mitchell 2018. Posted by permission from the author.From 2018 to 2024, this text was posted on the Penn Museum Web page. Craniology is the study of the skull. In the last few hundred years, craniological methods, like measuring the angle of the face, the size of the braincase, or the ratio of the length to the breadth of the head, have been used to classify people into racial groupings, to make claims about alleged differences in intelligence, and to study human variation. The study of medicine, anatomy, and art were all important to the development of craniology. [&hellip;]
- [The Life of Samuel George Morton (1799–1851)](https://sgmortonhistory.com/the-life-of-samuel-george-morton-1799-1851/): © 2018, John S. MichaelFrom 2018 to 2024, this text was posted on the Penn Museum Web page. Samuel George Morton (1799–1851) was a successful physician, anatomy professor, and active member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Morton is most remembered for his collection of human skulls. Although he was celebrated by his many admirers as a quintessential gentleman scholar, his life and work were more complex and conflicted. His infamous research into human races was both celebrated and rejected by some of the 19th century’s leading men of science. The following essay contextualizes Morton&#8217;s life and his [&hellip;]
- [Publications on Morton and racial bias in science, 1970s to today](https://sgmortonhistory.com/publications-on-morton-and-racial-bias-in-science-1970s-to-today/): Mismeasure for Mismeasure. 2011. Nature. Editorial 474: 419. Gould, Stephen. 1978. Morton’s Ranking of Races by Cranial Capacity. Science 200: 503–509. Gould, Stephen. 1996. The Mismeasure of Man: The Definitive Refutation of the Argument of the Bell Curve. New York: W.W. Norton. Gould, Stephen. 1996. The Mismeasure of Man; Revised and Expanded. New York: Norton. Hawks, John. 2011. Gould’s “Unconscious Manipulation of Data”. John Hawks Weblog. http://johnhawks.net/weblog/topics/meta/gould-morton-lewis-2011.html. Posted June 8. Accessed January 2017. Herrnstein, Richard, and Charles Murray. 1994. The Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life. New York: Free Press. Jensen, Arthur. 1969. How Much Can We [&hellip;]
- [Modern research on Morton and his skull collection from 1980 to today](https://sgmortonhistory.com/modern-research-on-morton-and-his-skull-collection-from-1980-to-today/): DeGusta, David, and Jason E. Lewis, 2011. Taking the measure of Gould&#8217;s skulls. New Scientist 11: 24–25. Lewis, Jason, et al. 2011. “The Mismeasure of Science” PLoS Biol. June 7. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001071. Michael, John. 1988. A New Look at Morton’s Craniological Research. Current Anthropology 29: 349–354. Poskett, James. 2015. National types. History of Science 53: 264–295. Renschler, Emily and Janet M. Monge. 2008. The Samuel George Morton cranial collection: historical significance and new research. Expedition 50: 30–38. Renschler, Emily. 2007. An osteobiography of an African diasporic skeletal sample: Integrating skeletal and historical information. PhD thesis, University of Pennsylvania.
- [Histories addressing Morton’s research and scientific racism, 1930s to today](https://sgmortonhistory.com/histories-addressing-mortons-research-and-scientific-racism-1930s-to-today/): Barkan, Elazar. 1992. The Retreat of Scientific Racism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Baum, Bruce. 2006. The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race. New York: New York University Press. Bieder, Robert. 1986. Science Encounters the Indian, 1820-1880. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. Boas, Franz. 1938. The Mind of Primitive Man. New York: MacMillan. Brace, C. Loring. 1974. The “Ethnology” of Josiah Clark Nott. Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine 50: 509–28. Brace, C. Loring. 2005. “Race” is a Four Letter Word: The Genesis of the Concept. New York: Oxford University Press. Brace, C. Loring. 2010. Physical Anthropology [&hellip;]
- [Significant publications on race and craniology, 1740s - 1920s](https://sgmortonhistory.com/significant-publications-on-race-and-craniology-1740s-1920s/): Ballou, W.H. 1918. Science Explains the Prussian Ferocity of War. The Washington Post, June 5: 5. Bendyshe, Thomas, ed. 1865. Anthropological Treatises of Blumenbach and Hunter London: Longman, et al. Bernier, François. 1684. Nouvelle division de la terre, par les différentes espèces ou races d&#8217;homme qui l’habitent. Le Journal Des Sçavans (April 24):133-140. Blumenbach, Johann. 1776. De generis humani varietate nativa, nativa liber. Göttingen:Vandenhoeck. Blumenbach, Johann. 1781. De generis humani varietate nativa, 2nd ed. Göttingen:Vandenhoek. Blumenbach, Johann. 1787. Einige naturhistorische Bemerkungen bey Gelegenheit einer Schweizerreise. Magazin für das Neueste aus der Physik und Naturgeschichte 6: 1–12. Blumenbach, Johann. 1789, 1792, [&hellip;]
- [Publications by Morton’s supporters and critics, 1830s–1860s](https://sgmortonhistory.com/publications-by-mortons-supporters-and-critics-1830s-1860s/): Agassiz, Louis. 1855. Sketch of the Natural Provinces of the Animal World and their Relations to the Different Types of Man. In Types of Mankind. Josiah Knot and George Gliddon, eds., Pp. lviii-lxxvi. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippencott &#8211; London: Trübner and Co. Bachman, John. 1850. The Doctrine of the Unity of the Human Race. Charleston, SC: C. Canning. Burke, Luke. 1848. Outlines of the Fundamental Doctrines of Ethnology. The Ethnological Journal June: 1–8. Burke, Luke. 1848. Outlines of the Fundamental Doctrines of Ethnology (Continued from page 8). The Ethnological Journal August: 129–141. Burke, Luke. 1848. Progress of Ethnology in the [&hellip;]
- [Notable publications citing Morton's craniological and race research, 1830s - 1920s](https://sgmortonhistory.com/notable-publications-citing-mortons-craniological-and-race-research-1830s-1920s/): Boas, Franz. 1912. Changes in the Bodily Form of Immigrants. American Anthropologist 14 (3): 530-562. Broca, Paul, Eugène Dally, and Franz Ignaz Pruner. 1862. Quoted in Discussion: Sur le rapport de M. Dally concernant les Américains, Séance du 17. Bulletins de la Société d&#8217;anthropologie de Paris 3: 417– 437. Combe, George. 1839. Phrenological Remarks on the relation between the natural Talents and Dispositions of Nations, and the Developments of their Brains. In Crania Americana, Crania Americana; Or, A Comparative View of the Skulls of Various Aboriginal Nations of North and South America. Samuel Morton, ed. Pp. 269–291. Philadelphia: J. Dobson. [&hellip;]
- [Publications about Morton’s life and research, 1850s - 1910s](https://sgmortonhistory.com/publications-about-mortons-life-and-research-1850s-1910s/): Collins, John, Isaac Collins, Thomas Morton, and Morris Earle. 1893. Reminiscences of Isaac and Rachael (Budd) Collins. Philadelphia: Lippencott. Death of Samuel George Morton. 1851. New York Tribune 11 (3,148): 5. Floy, James, ed. 1856. Samuel George Morton and Ethnology. The National Magazine 9: 336–343. Grant, William. 1851. Sketch of the Life and Character of Samuel George Morton. Philadelphia: John Royer. Haddon, Alfred. 1910. History of Anthropology. New York: Putman and Sons. Hrdlička, Aleš. 1911. Letter to Edwin J. Nolan, May 2, 1911. Samuel George Morton Papers. American Philosophical Society. Hrdlička, Aleš. 1918. Physical Anthropology, Its Scope and Aims. American [&hellip;]
- [Publications written by Morton](https://sgmortonhistory.com/publications-written-by-morton/): Morton, Samuel. 1825. Observations on Cornine, (an Alkaline Principle, recently obtained from the bark of Cornus Florida, By George W. Carpenter of Philadelphia). The Philadelphia Journal of the Medical and Physical Sciences 11 [n. s. 2]:195–198. Morton, Samuel. 1829. Analysis of tabular spar from Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with a notice of various minerals found at the same locality, Read on May 1, 1827. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 6 (1): 46–49. Morton, Samuel. 1829. Description of a new species of Ostria; with some Remarks on the O. Convexa of Say, Read May 1st, 1829. Journal of [&hellip;]
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## Pages

- [Publications](https://sgmortonhistory.com/publications/): Publications 2023, “Vedado, donde no se entierran más que negros bozals”: The burial grounds of 55 enslaved Africans whose skulls were acquired by S. G. Morton, on the Related Research landing page of the Penn &amp; Slavery Project web page. The focus of this paper was a series of indigenous African skulls that were acquired by Samuel George Morton, and are still housed in the Morton Collection of Human Crania, located in the Penn Museum in Philadelphia.  In this paper, I examined letters written to Morton and 19th century maps of Cuba to determine the site where these skulls were [&hellip;]
- [Articles](https://sgmortonhistory.com/articles/): Articles The Life of S. G. Morton (1799–1851) © 2018, John S. MichaelFrom 2018 to 2024, this text was posted on the Penn Museum Web page. Samuel George Morton (1799–1851) was a successful physician, anatomy professor, and active member of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Morton is most remembered for his collection of human skulls. A History of Craniology in Race Science and Physical Anthropology © 2018, Paul Wolff Mitchell. Posted by permission from the author.From 2018 to 2024, this text was posted on the Penn Museum Web page. Craniology is the study of the skull. In the [&hellip;]
- [Bibliography](https://sgmortonhistory.com/bibliography/): Bibliography © John S. Michael, 2025. Updated November 30, 2025 Publications written by Morton Samuel George Morton was a physician and an anatomy professor who also studied invertebrate paleontology, human racial variation, and general biology. The listing below presents his major publication on these topics. His personal letters and notes are also housed at: The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia Library of Drexel University, The American Philosophical Society, The National Library of Scotland, The Pennsylvania Historical Society, and Princeton University Library. Publications about Morton’s life and research, 1850s &#8211; 1910s Morton was a polite and affable man who died [&hellip;]
- [About](https://sgmortonhistory.com/about/): About The mission of this web page to present historical research on Samuel George Morton, and the race scholars (sometime referred to as “race scientists”) who preceded and followed him. The focus of this research is: 1) Examining primary source documents to gain insights into how Morton and his fellow race scholars viewed the anatomical variation present in the human racial spectrum; 2) Illuminating how past race scholars have influenced current views on race among academics, policy makers, and the general public; and 3) Researching the lives of the people whose skeletal remains where collected by Morton and his fellow [&hellip;]
- [](https://sgmortonhistory.com/): Samuel George Morton A Historical Perspective


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